Journal of the American Society of Hypertension
Volume 3, Issue 2 , Pages 150-155 , March 2009

Treatment of hypertension in patients with diabetes—an update

  • George L. Bakris, MD

      Affiliations

    • Hypertensive Diseases and Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author: George L. Bakris, MD, Hypertensive Diseases Center, University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, 5841 South Maryland Avenue, MC 1027, Chicago, Illinois 60637. Tel: 773-702-7936; fax: 773-834-0486.
  • ,
  • James R. Sowers, MD

      Affiliations

    • The Diabetes and Cardiovascular Center, Department of Medicine and Physiology, University of Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine and VA Center, Columbia, Missouri, USA
  • ,
  • on behalf of the American Society of Hypertension Writing Group

References 

  1. KDOQI . KDOQI clinical practice guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49:S12–S54
  2. Stamler J, Stamler R, Neaton JD. Blood pressure, systolic and diastolic, and cardiovascular risks. U.S. population data. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:598–615
  3. Hajjar I, Kotchen TA. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the United States, 1988–2000. JAMA. 2003;290:199–206
  4. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet. 2005;365:217–223
  5. Buse JB, Ginsberg HN, Bakris GL, Clark NG, Costa F, Eckel R, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases in people with diabetes mellitus: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Circulation. 2007;115:114–126
  6. Nag S, Bilous R, Kelly W, Jones S, Roper N, Connolly V. All-cause and cardiovascular mortality in diabetic subjects increases significantly with reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR): 10 years' data from the South Tees Diabetes Mortality Study. Diabet Med. 2007;24:10–17
  7. Bakris GL. The importance of blood pressure control in the patient with diabetes. Am J Med. 2004;116:30S–38S
  8. Sarafidis PA, Bakris GL. State of hypertension management in the united states: confluence of risk factors and the prevalence of resistant hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2008;10:130–139
  9. Whelton PK, Barzilay J, Cushman WC, Davis BR, Iiamathi E, Kostis JB, et al. Clinical outcomes in antihypertensive treatment of type 2 diabetes, impaired fasting glucose concentration, and normoglycemia: Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1401–1409
  10. Kostis JB, Wilson AC, Freudenberger RS, Cosgrove NM, Pressel SL, Davis BR, et al. Long-term effect of diuretic-based therapy on fatal outcomes in subjects with isolated systolic hypertension with and without diabetes. Am J Cardiol. 2005;95:29–35
  11. Sarafidis PA, Bakris GL. Antihypertensive therapy and the risk of new-onset diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:1167–1169
  12. Elliott WJ, Meyer PM. Incident diabetes in clinical trials of antihypertensive drugs: a network meta-analysis. Lancet. 2007;369:201–207
  13. Mancia G, Grassi G, Zanchetti A. New-onset diabetes and antihypertensive drugs. J Hypertens. 2006;24:3–10
  14. Carter BL, Einhorn PT, Brands M, He J, Cutler JA, Whelton PK, et al. Thiazide-induced dysglycemia: call for research from a working group from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Hypertension. 2008;52:30–36
  15. Sarafidis PA, McFarlane SI, Bakris GL. Antihypertensive agents, insulin sensitivity and new-onset diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2007;7:191–199
  16. Sarafidis PA, Bakris GL. Antihypertensive treatment with beta-blockers and the spectrum of glycemic control. QJM. 2006;99:431–436
  17. Bakris GL, Fonseca V, Katholi RE, McGill JB, Messerli FH, Phillips RA, et al. Metabolic effects of carvedilol vs. metoprolol in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292:2227–2236
  18. Kaiser T, Heise T, Nosek L, Eckers U, Sawicki PT. Influence of nebivolol and enalapril on metabolic parameters and arterial stiffness in hypertensive type 2 diabetic patients. J Hypertens. 2006;24:1397–1403
  19. Bosch J, Yusuf S, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, Sheridan P, Dagenais G, et al. Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1551–1562
  20. Bakris G, Molitch M, Hewkin A, Kipnes M, Sarafidis P, Fakouhi K, et al. Differences in glucose tolerance between fixed-dose antihypertensive drug combinations in people with metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:2592–2597
  21. Turnbull F, Neal B, Ninomiya T, Algert C, Arima H, Barzi F, et al. Effects of different regimens to lower blood pressure on major cardiovascular events in older and younger adults: meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2008;336:1121–1123
  22. So WY, Kong AP, Ma RC, Ozaki R, Szeto CC, Chan NN, et al. Glomerular filtration rate, cardiorenal endpoints, and all-cause mortality in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:2046–2052
  23. Ibsen H, Wachtell K, Olsen MH, Borch-Johnsen K, Lindholm LH, Mogensen CE, et al. Does albuminuria predict cardiovascular outcome on treatment with losartan vs. atenolol in hypertension with left ventricular hypertrophy? A LIFE substudy. J Hypertens. 2004;22:1805–1811
  24. Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB, Pfeffer MA, Porush JG, Rouleau JL, et al. Impact of achieved blood pressure on cardiovascular outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:2170–2179
  25. De Zeeuw D, Remuzzi G, Parving HH, Keane WF, Zhang Z, Shahinfar S, et al. Albuminuria, a therapeutic target for cardiovascular protection in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Circulation. 2004;110:921–927
  26. Sarafidis PA, Khosla N, Bakris GL. Antihypertensive therapy in the presence of proteinuria. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49:12–26
  27. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension. 2003;42:1206–1252
  28. Mancia G, de Backer G, Dominiczak A, Cifkova R, Fagard R, Germano G, et al. 2007 Guidelines for the Management of Arterial Hypertension: the Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens. 2007;25:1105–1187
  29. Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI) . K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines on hypertension and antihypertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;43:S1–S290
  30. Saydah SH, Fradkin J, Cowie CC. Poor control of risk factors for vascular disease among adults with previously diagnosed diabetes. JAMA. 2004;291:335–342
  31. Wong ND, Lopez VA, L'Italien G, Chen R, Kline SE, Franklin SS. Inadequate control of hypertension in U.S. adults with cardiovascular disease comorbidities in 2003–2004. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:2431–2436
  32. Chua DC, Bakris GL. Is proteinuria a plausible target of therapy?. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2004;6:177–181
  33. Pitt B, Bakris GL, Ruilope L, et al. EPHESUS investigators. Serum potassium and clinical outcomes in the eplerenone post-acute myocardial infarction heart failure efficacy and survival study. Circulation. 2008;118:1643–1650
  34. Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, Goff DC, Bigger JT, Buse JB, et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2545–2559
  35. Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, Neal B, Billot L, Woodward M, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2560–2572
  36. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, Berl T, Pohl MA, Lewis JB, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:851–860
  37. Gerbino PP, Shoheiber O. Adherence patterns among patients treated with fixed-dose combination vs. separate antihypertensive agents. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2007;64:1279–1283
  38. Bangalore S, Kamalakkannan G, Parkar S, Messerli FH. Fixed-dose combinations improve medication compliance: a meta-analysis. Am J Med. 2007;120:713–719
  39. Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, Dyal L, Copland I, Schumacher H, et al. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high-risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1547–1559
  40. Kunz R, Friedrich C, Wolbers M, Mann JF. Meta-analysis: effect of monotherapy and combination therapy with inhibitors of the renin angiotensin system on proteinuria in renal disease. Ann Intern Med. 2008;148:30–48
  41. Hart PD, Bakris GL. Should beta-blockers be used to control hypertension in people with chronic kidney disease?. Semin Nephrol. 2007;27:555–564
  42. Bakris GL, Williams M, Dworkin L, Elliot WJ, Epstein M, Toto R, et al. Preserving renal function in adults with hypertension and diabetes: a consensus approach. National Kidney Foundation Hypertension and Diabetes Executive Committees Working Group. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000;36:646–661
  43. Saseen JJ, Carter BL, Brown TE, Elliot WJ, Black HR. Comparison of nifedipine alone and with diltiazem or verapamil in hypertension. Hypertension. 1996;28:109–114
  44. Pratt-Ubunama MN, Nishizaka MK, Boedefeld RL, Cofield SS, Harding SM, Calhoun DA. Plasma aldosterone is related to severity of obstructive sleep apnea in subjects with resistant hypertension. Chest. 2007;131:453–459
  45. Calhoun DA, Jones D, Textor S, Goff DC, Murphy TP, Toto RD, et al. American Heart Association Professional Education Committee. Resistant hypertension: diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation. 2008;117:e510–e526
  46. Nishizaka MK, Zaman MA, Calhoun DA. Efficacy of low-dose spironolactone in subjects with resistant hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2003;16:925–930
  47. Chapman N, Dobson J, Wilson S, Dahlöf B, Sever PS, Wedel H, et al. Effect of spironolactone on blood pressure in subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension. 2007;49:839–845
  48. Krug AW, Ehrhart-Bornstein M. Aldosterone and metabolic syndrome: is increased aldosterone in metabolic syndrome patients an additional risk factor?. Hypertension. 2008;51:1252–1258
  49. Smith SC, Allen J, Blair SN, Bonow RO, Brass LM, Fonarow GC, et al. AHA/ACC guidelines for secondary prevention for patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular disease: 2006 update: endorsed by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Circulation. 2006;113:2363–2372
  50. Ruilope L, Kjeldsen SE, de la Sierra A, Mancia G, Ruggenenti P, Stergiou GS, et al. The kidney and cardiovascular risk–implications for management: a consensus statement from the European Society of Hypertension. Blood Press. 2007;16:72–79

 Reprinted with Permission from the Journal of Clinical Hypertension, Vol. 10, No. 9 September 2008, pgs. 707–713.

 Dr Bakris is a consultant for Abbott, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Daiichi-Sankyo, Forest Laboratories, Gilead, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Novartis, Sanofi Aventis, and Walgreens (formulary committee). He has received Grant/Research support from the National Institutes of Health (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute), GlaxoSmithKline, and Forest Laboratories. Dr Sowers has received Grant/Research support from the National Institutes of Health (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute), VA, and Forest Laboratories. Dr Sowers is a consultant for Forest Laboratories, Merck, and Novartis.

PII: S1933-1711(09)00003-5

doi: 10.1016/j.jash.2009.01.001

Journal of the American Society of Hypertension
Volume 3, Issue 2 , Pages 150-155 , March 2009